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Ulum_al_Qur'an |
An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur'an
Ahmad von Denffer
Introduction
CHAPTER 1: The Qur'an and Revelation
CHAPTER 2 : Transmission of the Qur'anic Revelation
CHAPTER 3 : The Qur'an in Manuscript and Print
CHAPTER 4: Form, Language and Style
CHAPTER 5 : Understanding the Text
CHAPTER 6 : Interpreting the Text
CHAPTER 6 :
Interpreting the Text
Tafsir (exegesis) of the Qur'an is the most important science
for Muslims. All matters concerning the Islamic way of life are connected to it
in one sense or another since the right application of Islam is based on proper
understanding of the guidance from Allah. Without tafsir there would be no right
understanding of various passages of the Qur'an.
The word tafsir is derived from the root 'fassara' – to
explain, to expound. It means 'explanation' or 'interpretation'. In technical
language the word tafsir is used for explanation, interpretation and commentary
on the Qur'an, comprising all ways of obtaining knowledge, which contributes to
the proper understanding of it, explains its meanings and clarifies its legal
implications. [See Zarkashi,
op.cit., 1, p. 13.] The word mufassir (pl.
mufassirun) is the term used for the person doing the tafsir, i.e. the 'exegete'
or 'commentator'.
The word ta'wil, which is also used in this connection, is
derived from the root 'awwala' and also means 'explanation, interpretation' .
In technical language it similarly refers to explanation and
interpretation of the Qur'an.
Tafsir in the language of the scholars means explanation and
clarification. It aims at knowledge and understanding concerning the book of
Allah, to explain its meanings, extract its legal rulings and grasp its
underlying reasons. Tafsir explains the 'outer' (zahir) meanings of the Qur'an.
Ta'wil is considered by some to mean the explanation of the inner and concealed
meanings of the Qur'an, as far as a knowledgeable person can have access to
them. Others are of the opinion that there is no difference between Tafsir and
ta'wil.
There are a number of reasons why Tafsir is of great
importance, but the basic reason is the following: Allah has sent the Qur'an as
a book of guidance to mankind. Man's purpose is to worship Allah, i.e. to seek
His pleasure by living the way of life Allah has invited him to adopt. He can do
so within the framework of the guidance that Allah has revealed concerning this,
but he can do so only if he properly understands its meanings and implications.
Some Muslim scholars have warned against Tafsir. Ahmad b.
Hanbal, e.g. has said: 'Three matters have no basis: Tafsir, malahim (tales of
eschatological nature) and maghazi (tales of the battles)'. [Ibn
Taimiya, muqaddima fi usul al-tafsir, Kuwait, 1971, p.59.]
By this is meant that there is much exaggeration and unsound
material in these fields, but it does not mean that neither of them ought to be
considered. This is clear from another version of the same verdict, in which the
word isnad is used for 'basis'.
Muslim scholars have laid down certain basic conditions for
sound Tafsir. Any Tafsir, which disregards these principles must be viewed with
great caution, if not rejected altogether. The most important among these
conditions are the following:
The mufassir must:
- Be sound in belief ('aqida).
- Well-grounded in the knowledge of Arabic and its rules as a language.
- Well-grounded in other sciences that are connected with the study of the
Qur'an (e.g. 'ilm al-riwaya).
- Have the ability for precise comprehension.
- Abstain from the use of mere opinion.
- Begin the Tafsir of the Qur'an with the Qur'an.
- Seek guidance from the words and explanations of the Prophet.
- Refer to the reports from the sahaba.
- Consider the reports from the tabi'un.
- Consult the opinions of other eminent scholars.
-
Grades of Sources [See
Ibn Taimiya, op.cit., p.93.]
The best Tafsir is the explanation of the Qur'an by the
Qur'an.
The next best is the explanation of the Qur'an by the Prophet
Muhammad, who, as Shafi'i explained, acted according to what he understood from
the Qur'an.
If nothing can be found in the Qur'an nor in the sunna of the
Prophet, one turns to the reports from the sahaba. [See
Ibn Taimiya, op.cit., p.95.]
If nothing can be found in the Qur'an, the sunna and the
reports from the sahaba, one turns to the reports from the tabi'un. [See
Ibn Taimiya, op.cit., p. 102.]
However, nothing can match the explanation of the Qur'an by
the Qur'an and the explanation of the Qur'an by the Prophet.
Tafsir may be divided into three basic groups: [This
classification has been borrowed from Sabuni, tibyan, p.63. See also Qattan,
op.cit. section 25.]
- Tafsir bi-l-riwaya (by transmission), also known as Tafsir bi-l-ma'thur.
- Tafsir bi'l-ra'y (by sound opinion; also known as tafsir bi-l-diraya, by
knowledge).
- Tafsir bi-l-ishara (by indication, from signs).
-
Tafsir bi-l-riwaya
By this is meant all explanations of the Qur'an which can be
traced back through a chain of transmission to a sound source, i.e.:
- The Qur'an itself.
- The explanation of the Prophet.
- The explanation by Companions of the Prophet (to some extent).
Naturally, the explanation of the Qur'an by the Qur'an and
the explanation of the Qur'an by the Prophet are the two highest sources for
tafsir, which cannot be matched nor superseded by any other source. Next to
these rank the explanations by the sahaba, since the sahaba were witnesses to
the revelations, were educated and trained by the Prophet himself and were
closest to the period of the first Muslim umma. Of course all reports of
explanations by the Prophet or by a sahabi must be sound according to the
science of riwaya as in 'ulum al-hadith.
The interpretation of the Qur'an by the Qur'an is the highest
source of tafsir. Many of the questions which may arise out of a certain passage
of the Qur'an have their explanation in other parts of the very same book, and
often there is no need to turn to any sources other than the word of Allah,
which in itself contains tafsir. To seek to explain an aya from the Qur'an by
referring to another aya from the Qur'an is the first and foremost duty of the
mufassir. Only if this does not suffice, he will refer to other sources of
tafsir. [Itqan, 11,
pp.181-2.]
A case in point is the detailed explanation of 5:2
by 5:4,
concerning permissible and prohibited meat. Another example of explanation of
one aya in the Qur'an by another concerns a question which might arise from Surah
44: 3. It is explained in Surah
97: 1:
'We sent it down during a blessed night'
(44: 3).
Which night is this blessed night, in which the Qur'an was
sent down?
'We have indeed revealed this in the lailat al-qadr'
(97: 1).
A third example is the explanation of Surah
2:37 by Surah
7:23:
'Then learnt Adam from his Lord words of inspiration, and
his Lord turned towards him, for He is Oft-Returning, Most Merciful'
(2: 37).
These 'words of inspiration' are explained by the Qur'an as
follows:
'Our Lord! We have wronged our own souls. If Thou forgive
us not, and bestow not upon us Thy mercy, we shall certainly be lost' (7:
23).
There are numerous examples of explanation of the Qur'an by
the Prophet, who either himself asked the Angel Gabriel for explanation of
matters not clear to him, or who was asked by the Companions about the Qur'an.
Suyuti has given a long list of explanations of the Qur'an by the Prophet sura
by sura. [Itqan, 11, pp.
191-205.]
Here one example may suffice:
'And eat and drink until the white thread of dawn appears
to you distinct from its black thread. . .'
(2: 187).
Narrated 'Adi b. Hatim: I said: 'O Allah's Apostle! What is
the meaning of the white thread distinct from the black thread? Are these two
threads?' He said: 'You are not intelligent, if you watch the two threads'. He
then added, 'No, it is the darkness of the night and the whiteness of the day'.
[Itqan 11. pp. 191-205.]
[For a brief summary on early Tafsir see al-Sawwaf, 'Early
Tafsir', in Ahmad, K. and Z. 1. Ansari. Islamic Perspectives. Leicester, 1979,
pp.l35-45.]
Next, after explanation of the Qur'an by the Qur'an and of
the Qur'an by the Prophet himself, ranks the explanation of the Qur'an by the
sahaba. Among them, the following were best known for their knowledge of and
contribution to the field of tafsir: Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, 'All (not much
has been reported from them), Ibn Mas'ud, Ibn 'Abbas, 'Ubay b. Ka'b, Zaid b.
Thabit, Abu Musa al-Ash'arl, 'Abdullah b. Zubair.
Abdullah b. 'Abbas (d. 68/687) is considered to be the most
knowledgeable of the Companions in tafsir. [A
book entitled tanwir al-miqbas min Tafsir Ibn Abbas (Beirut, n.d.) is a complete
tafsir of the Qur'an. all explanations of which are said to go back to Ibn 'Abbas.
On the question of authenticity, see al-Sawwaf, op.cit. p. 140.]
He has been called 'tarjuman al-qur'an', the interpreter of the Qur'an. Since he
was related to the Prophet, being his cousin, and his maternal aunt Maimuna
being one of the Prophet's wives, he was very close to the Prophet Muhammad and
learnt much about the revelation. It is said that he saw the Angel Gabriel
twice. Apart from his detailed knowledge of everything concerning tafsir, he is
also given the credit for having emphasised one of the basic principles of 'ilm
al-tafsir which has remained important to this day, namely, that the meaning of
words, especially of unusual words in the Qur'an ought to be traced back to
their usage in the language of pre-Islamic poetry. There is a long list of such
explanations quoted by Suyutl. [Itqan
1 pp.120-33.]
The following is an example of tafsir from a sahabl, namely
Ibn 'Abbas, confirmed by 'Umar:
'So celebrate the praises of your Lord, and ask for His
forgiveness. Verily! He is the one who accepts the repentance and forgives'
(110: 3).
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: 'Umar used to make me sit with the
elderly men who had fought in the battle of Badr. Some of them felt it (did
not like that) and said to 'Umar: 'Why do you bring in this boy to sit with
us, while we have sons like him?' 'Umar replied 'Because of what you know of
his position' (i.e. his religious knowledge). One day 'Umar called me and made
me sit in the gathering of those people, and I think that he called me just to
show them (my religious knowledge). 'Umar then asked them in my presence:
'What do you say about the interpretation of the statement of Allah'. 'When
comes help of Allah, and the conquest . . .'
(110: 1). Some
of them said: 'We are ordered to praise Allah and ask for His forgiveness,
when Allah's help and the conquest (of Makka) comes to us'. Some others kept
quiet and did not say anything. On that 'Umar asked me: 'Do you say the same,
O Ibn 'Abbas?' I replied: 'No'. He said: 'What do you say then?' I replied:
'That is the sign of the death of Allah's apostle which Allah informed him of.
Allah said: '(O
Muhammad) when comes the help of Allah (to you against your enemies) and the
conquest (of Makka) (which is the sign of your death) - you should celebrate
the praises of your Lord and ask for His forgiveness, and He is the One who
accepts the repentance and forgives' (110:1-3).
On that 'Umar said: 'I do
not know anything about it other than what you have said'.
[Bukhari, Vl, No. 494.]
Another short example is:
Narrated 'Ata': When Ibn 'Abbas heard: 'Have
you not seen those who have changed the favor of Allah into disbelief?'
(14: 28). He
said: 'Those were the disbelieving pagans of Makka.
[Bukhari Vl No. 222.]
There are many more persons from among the tabi’un known
for their preoccupation with tafsir, because many more people had embraced Islam
and the need for knowledge about the Qur'an had increased manifold. Also, the
Prophet himself and many of his Companions were no longer available to give this
guidance, and therefore greater efforts had to be made to satisfy this need for
proper understanding of the book of Allah.
Of the mufassirun from among the tabi’un one distinguishes
three groups, according to their origin and area of activity:
According to many scholars, this group of mufassirun from
among the tabi’un are the most knowledgeable in tafsir, because they learnt
about it from 'Abdullah b. 'Abbas. They are many in number, and among the best
known out of many others are Mujahid (d.104/722), 'Ata' (d.114/732) and 'Ikrima
(d.107H).
Mujahid, the best known among them, is reported to have gone
through the Qur'an thrice with Ibn 'Abbas and to have asked him about the 'when'
and 'how' of each verse that had been revealed. [Taimiya
p. ;102.]
A complete book of tafsir by Mujahid has been published. It
is based on a manuscript from the 6th Hijra century and is edited by Surti. [Surti,
A.: Tafsir Mujdhid, 2 vols., Beirut, n.d.]
Humaid b. Qais Makki reported: I was with Mujahid and we were
circumambulating the house (Ka'ba). A man came and asked whether the fasts of
penalty of an oath should be observed continuously or severally. Humaid replied
that if he liked he could observe them severally too! But Mujahid said: Not
severally, for the reading of 'Ubayy b. Ka'b is thalathi ayyamin mutatabi'at,
i.e. to fast three days continuously'. [Muwatta
Malik, No. 617.]
The mufassirun among the tabi’un from Madina had many
Companions as their teachers, among the best known being 'Ubay b. Ka'b. The
following are some of the well-known Qur'an exegetes among them: Muh. Ammad b.
Ka'b al-Qarzi (d.117/735), Abu-l 'Alliya al-Riyahl (d.90/708) and Zaid b. Aslam
(d.130/747).
There were also many mufassirun among the tabi’un in Iraq.
Their principal teacher was Ibn Mas'ud. Their main centres were Basra and Kufa.
The best known among them are: Al-Hasan al-Basri (d.121/738), Masruq b. al-'Ajda'
(d.63/682) and Ibrahlm al-Nakha'i. (d.95/713).
Nothing can excel the tafsir of the Qur'an by the Qur'an.
This is followed by sound reports about the Prophet's explanation of the
revelation.
Whatever is sound and genuine in the explanation of the
Qur'an by the sahaba and the tabi’un may not be rejected, but the following
principles are to be observed:
- Sound reports must be distinguished from unsound ones, for many views have
been falsely attributed to some sahaba and tabi’un (especially to Ibn 'Abbas
and Mujahid, the most renowned ones among them), which cannot be traced back
to them when the isnad is investigated. Those reports must of course be
rejected.
- Material from the ahl-al-kitab, in particular the Jewish traditions (isra’iliyat)
[For details, see below, p. 133.] must be sorted out and evaluated.
- Material which crept in due to theological, philosophical, political and
other considerations, must be sorted out and evaluated (such as e.g. some
Shi'a attributions to 'Ali, or 'Abbasid attributions to Ibn 'Abbas, etc.).
- False material purposely introduced by the enemies of Islam must be
distinguished from sound material.
-
Tafsir bi'l-ra'y
The second kind of tafsir, after tafsir bi'l-riwaya, is the
so-called tafsir bi'l-ra'y. It is not based directly on transmission of
knowledge by the predecessors, but on the use of reason and ijtihad.
Tafsir bi’l-ra'y does not mean 'interpretation
by mere opinion', but deriving an opinion
through ijtihad based on sound sources. While the former has been condemned
already in the hadith, the latter is recommendable, when used in its proper
place as sound ijtihad, and was also approved by the Prophet, e.g. when he sent
Mu’adh bin Jabal to Yemen. [Mishkat
al-masabih, op.cit., II, p.794: (Arabic), Vol. 2, No. 3737.]
Tafsir bi'l-ra'y on the other hand has been declared haram on
the basis of the following hadith:
'From Ibn ‘Abbas: Allah's messenger said: "He who
says (something) concerning the Qur'an without knowledge, he has taken his
seat of fire" ‘ . [Ibn
Taimiya, p.105, from Tirmidhi, who says it is hasan sahlh.]
However this hadith has been explained in two ways:
- That no one should say of the Qur'an what is not from the sahaba or
tabi’un.
- That no one should say of the Qur'an what he knows to be otherwise.
[Sabuni.tibyan,p.174.]
The obvious meaning of the hadith is that one should not say
something about the Qur'an without having the proper knowledge, the sources of
which have already been explained.
[The Qur'an explained by the Qur'an, by the Prophet, by the Companions. By the
tabi’un. by sound ijtihad.]
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