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CHAPTER
5 : Understanding the Text
MAKKAN
AND MADINAN REVELATIONS
The growth and development of the
Muslim umma is marked by two great phases:
- The period in Makka, before the hijra (A.D. 622).
- The period in Madina, after the hijra.
Naturally the revelation from Allah to
guide the Muslims also responded, to some extent, to these
particular situations.
The Makkan
Phase
The Makkan phase of the revelation
lasted about 13 years, from the first revelation up to the
hijra.
This phase is determined by the prime
task of the Prophet to call people to Islam. The main
themes of this call, based on the Qur'anic revelation are:
- Allah and His unity (Tawhid).
- The coming resurrection and judgement.
- Righteous conduct.
The role of the Prophet in this phase
is in particular that of an announcer and Warner.
The Madinan
Phase
The Madinan phase lasted about ten
years, from the hijra to the death of the Prophet. While
the basic themes of the Makkan phase remain, the factor of
the Muslims' growing together into a community and the
formation of the umma, now makes its presence clearly
felt.
In Madina, there are four groups of
people to be met:
- The muhajirun, who migrated from Makka to Madina.
- The ansar, who originated from Madina and helped
the muhajirun.
- The munafiqun, who are from Madina and pretended
to support the Muslims.
- The ahl al-kitab, i.e. Jews and Christians, with
their respective scriptures.
In addition to these the Qur'an also
continued to address al-nas, 'mankind' i.e. all people,
and referred to the disbelievers and ignorant ones.
Makkan and
Madinan Suras
Suras of the Qur'an have also been
classified, according to their origin, into Makkan and
Madinan suras.
A sura is said to be of Makkan origin,
when its beginning was revealed in the Makkan phase, even
if it contains verses from Madina.
A sura is said to be of Madinan origin,
when its beginning was revealed in the Madinan phase, even
if it has verses from the Makkan period in its text. [Mabani,
in GdQ, 1, p.59.]
The following 85 suras are, according
to Zarkashi, [Zarkashi,
B.: Al-burhan fi 'ulum al-Qur’an, Cairo, 1958,Vol.
1,p.193.] of Makkan
origin:
96, 68, 73, 74, 111, 81, 87, 92,
89, 93, 94, 103, 100, 108, 102, 107, 109,
105,113,114,112,53,80,97,91,85,95, 106,101,75,
104,77,50,90,86,54,38,7,72,36,25,35, 19,20, 56,26,27,
28, 17, 10, 11, 12, 15, 6, 37, 31, 34, 39, 40, 41, 42,
43, 44, 45, 46, 51, 88, 18, 16, 71, 14, 21, 23, 32,
52, 67, 69, 70, 78, 79, 82, 84,
There is a difference of opinion as to
what was last revealed in Makka. Some say, following Ibn 'Abbas,
that it was Sura 29 (al-ankabut); others say Sura 23 (al-mu'minun);
still others say Sura 83 (al-mutaffifin). Some believe
that Sura 83 is actually Madinan.
The following 29 suras are, according
to Zarkashi, [Zarkashi.
Vol. 1, p. 194. For another list see fihrist. 1, pp.
52-3.] of Madinan
origin:
2, 8, 3, 33, 60, 4, 99, 57, 47, 13,
55, 76, 65, 98, 59, 110, 24, 22, 63, 58, 49, 66, 61,
62, 64, 48, 9, 5.
Some hold that Sura 1 (al-fatiha) is of
Makkan, others that it is of Madinan, origin.
The Makkan suras constitute about 11,
and the Madinan about 19 juz' of the text.
From the above division it is obvious
that the Madinan suras are the longer ones and comprise a
much larger part of the Qur'an.
Chronology
According to a list based upon Nu'man
b. Bashir and given in the fihrist of al-Nadim, [Fihrist,
I. pp.49-52.] the
chronological order of the revelation of the suras is as
follows:
96, 68, 73, 74, 111, 81, 94, 103,
89, 93, 92, 100, 108, 102, 107, 109, 105, 112, 113,
114, 53, 80, 97, 91, 85, 95, 106, 101, 75, 104, 77,
50, 90, 55, 72, 36, 7, 25, 35, 19, 20, 56, 26, 27, 28,
17, 11, 12, 10, 15, 37, 31, 23, 34, 21, 37, 40, 41,
47, 43, 44, 45, 46, 51, 88, 18, 6, 16, 71, 14, 32, 52,
67, 69, 70, 78, 79, 82, 84, 30, 29, 83, 54, 86.
Why is it important to know the
chronology of the suras and verses, although the Qur'an is
not arranged in chronological order?
To know the origin and order of some of
the revelation is important for understanding its meaning
which can often be more easily grasped if one knows the
time and circumstances that relate to it. For instance,
many ayat from the Makkan period may be especially
meaningful to Muslims living in a strongly un-Islamic
environment, while some of the Madinan period would appeal
much to Muslims who are in the process of formation of the
umma. In some cases, unless one knows which of two or more
related verses was revealed first, one cannot decide which
legal ruling is now binding upon the Muslims. Here
knowledge of the chronology is directly linked with the
issue of al-nasikh wa al-mansukh. [See
below for details.] It
is also important to know the chronology of verses in
order to understand the gradual development of many Muslim
practices, attitudes and laws such as e.g. towards
prohibition of alcohol, towards fighting, etc. and to see
how these matters developed historically, i.e. during the
lifetime of the Prophet in order to understand their full
implications. [For
example as far as fighting the enemy is concerned, the
first verse revealed on this particular subject is from
Sura al-hajj (22). This
verse is from the Madinan period and it becomes clear from
this that Muslims were not drawn to fight against the
non-Muslims before the hijra. This has important
implications for our own planning and thinking, e.g. to
decide when Islam has to be defended today with verbal and
when with physical means.]
Knowledge about the Makkan and Madinan
suras derived from the sahaba and tabi'un and nothing is
said about this by the Prophet himself. [al-Baqillani,
in Qattan, op. cit., p.55.]
This is because at his time everyone was a witness and
well aware of the occasions of revelation.
Often there is internal evidence, as to
which, part of the revelation is Makkan or Madinan. There
are a number of guiding criteria, which help to
distinguish between them:
- The theme. Does it belong to the Makkan or Madinan
period? e.g. verses about warfare (9: 5) are only
revealed after hijra.
 Sometimes
there is a direct reference, such as e.g. to Abu
Lahab in Sura 111, or to the Battle of Badr in Sura
3: 123.
- The
length. Makkan ayat are often short, Madinan ones
longer, e.g.: Sura al-shu'ara'(26) is Makkan. It has
227 ayat. Sura al-anfal (8) is Madinan. It has
(only) 75 ayat.
Makkan suras are usually short, Madinan
ones longer, e.g.: Juz' 30 is overwhelmingly Makkan. It
has 543 (Makkan) ayat. Juz' 18 is overwhelmingly Madinan.
It has (only) 117 (Madinan) ayat.
There are however exceptions in both
cases.
- The form of address. Often the address: 'O ye who
believe', and 'O people of the book' indicates a
Madinan origin, while the addresses 'O Mankind' and
'O People' are usually of Makkan origin.
- The theme. Among the Makkan themes are tawhid,
shirk, day of resurrection, moral corruption,
stories of the Prophets. These topics are also found
in Madinan suras, but usually only touched upon
briefly. Madinan themes which are not found in
Makkan revelations are of social and legal
implications, concerning marriage, divorce,
inheritance, punishment, etc.
- There are 19 suras with so-called huruf tahajji
(such as alif , lam , mim , etc . ) . All these
suras are Makkan, except Sura al-baqara (2) and Al 'Imran
(3).
- All ayat with the word kalla are Makkan.
- All suras containing sajda are Makkan.
- Most of the suras of the group mufassal, beginning
with Sura qaf (50) in the latter part of the Qur'an
are Makkan .
- All references to the munafiqun are from Madina
(except Sura al-'ankabut (29). Its verse 11 is
Makkan.
Summary
The knowledge of Makkan and Madinan
revelations is one of the important branches of ''ulum al-Qur’an.
It is not merely of historical interest, but particularly
important for the understanding and interpretation of the
respective verses.
Many suras of the Qur'an do contain
material from both periods of revelation, and in some
cases there exists difference of opinion among scholars
concerning the classification of a particular passage.
However, on the whole, it is a well-established
distinction, fully employed in the science of tafsir and
best derived from the internal evidence of the text of the
Qur'an itself.
ASBAB AL-NUZUL
The Qur'an has been revealed for
guidance, for all times and situations to come. However,
various ayat were revealed at a particular time in history
and in particular circumstances. The Arabic word sabab
(pl. asbab) means reason, cause and 'marifa asbab al-nuzul'
is the knowledge about the reasons of the revelations,
i.e. the knowledge about the particular events and
circumstances in history that are related to the
revelation of particular passages from the Qur'an.
Its Importance
Wahidi (d. 468/1075), one of the best
classical scholars in this field wrote: 'The knowledge
about Tafsir of the ayat is not possible without occupying
oneself with their stories and explanation of (the
reasons) for their revelation.' [Asbab
al-nuzul, by al-Wahidi al-Nisaburi. Cairo, 1968, p 4]
Knowledge about the asbab al-nuzul
helps one to understand the circumstances in which a
particular revelation occurred, which sheds light on its
implications and gives guidance to the explanation (tafsir)
and application of the aya in question for other
situations.
In particular, knowledge about the
asbab al-nuzul helps one to understand:
- The direct and immediate meaning and implication
of an aya, as it can be seen within its original
context.
- The imminent reason underlying a legal ruling.
- The original intent of the aya.
- Whether the meaning of an aya is specific or of
general application, and if so, under which
circumstances it is to be applied.
- The historical situation at the time of the
Prophet and the development of the early Muslim
community.
Example:
'To God belong the East and the West:
whithersoever ye turn, there is the presence of God, for
God is all-pervading, all-knowing' (2:115).
Without knowing the sabab (reason), one
might easily conclude that this revelation permits the
Muslim to face any direction when performing prayer, while
it is well known that to face Qiblah is one of the
conditions without which prayer becomes invalid. The
circumstances in which this revelation occurred explains
its implications:
According to Wahidi [op.
cit. pp. 20-21] a
group of Muslims traveled on a dark night and they did not
know where the qibla was, so they later realized that they
had prayed in the wrong direction. They asked the Prophet
about it and he kept silent until the above verse was
revealed. '
[Based on a report from Jabir b.
'Abdullah. Wahidi also informs us about some other
situations when the aya reportedly applied:
- That one may pray voluntary prayer on one's riding
camel, in whichever direction it may turn (based on Ibn 'Umar).
- That the Companions of the Prophet asked why they were
ordered to pray for the dead Negus of Abyssinia, who had
prayed towards a different qibla than their own (based on
Ibn 'Abbas and 'Ata').
- That the Jews asked, why the qibla of the Muslims had
been changed from bait al-maqdis (based on Ibn Abi Talha).
See Wahidi, op.cit., p.21. All this supports the view (to
which in particular K. Murad drew my attention) of Suyuti
based on Zarkashi (Suyuti, Lubab an nuzul, Tunis, 1981,
p.7.) that when the suhaba of the Prophet spoke about an
aya of the Qur'an, saying 'It was revealed concerning
...'(nazalat fi kadha) they do not restrict themselves to
narrating a single 'cause' for the revelation of an aya
but rather refer to the 'situations' to which particular
verses where found applicable during the lifetime of the
Prophet while the occasion of the first revelation of the
aya may have been much earlier. In this lie great avenues
for understanding and tafsir of the Qur'anic message.]
Taking into account this reason for the
revelation one cannot come to the wrong conclusion that it
is unimportant where to turn in prayer. The scholars say
however that this verse excuses the mistake of those who
un-willingly and under adverse circumstances fail to
observe the correct qibla.
How it is Known
The well-known asbab al-nuzul have been
related to us by the reliable Companions of the Prophet
Muhammad. Only reports which are sahih can be considered
fully reliable, as is the case in the science of hadith
generally. A particular condition here is also that the
person who relates it should have been present at the time
and occasion of the event (the revelation). [Wahidi.
p.4.] Reports from
tab'iun only, not going back to the Prophet and his
Companions are to be considered weak (da'if). Hence one
cannot accept the mere opinion of writers or people that
such and such verse might have been revealed on such and
such occasion. Rather one needs to know exactly who
related this incident, whether he himself was present, and
who transmitted it to us.
Kinds of
Reports
There are two kinds of reports on asbab
al-nuzul:
- Definite reports.
- Probable reports.
In the first kind (definite) the
narrator clearly indicates that the event he relates is
the sabab al-nuzul.
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: the verse 'Obey
Allah and obey the apostle and those of you (Muslims)
who are in authority ...'
(4:
59)
was revealed in connection with 'Abdullah bin Hudafa bin
Qais bin 'Adi when the Prophet appointed him as the
commander of a sariyya (army detachment).
[Bukhari,
VI, No. 108.]
In the second kind (probable) the
narrator does not indicate clearly that the event narrated
is the sabab al-nuzul, but suggests this probability.
In the second kind (probable) the
narrator does not indicate clearly that the event narrated
is the sabab al-nuzul, but suggests this probability.
Narrated 'Urwa: Az-Zubair quarreled
with a man from the Ansar because of a natural
mountainous stream at Al-Harra. The Prophet said: O
Zubair, irrigate (your land) and then let the water flow
to your neighbor. The Ansar said: O Allah's apostle
(this is because) he is your cousin? At that the
Prophet's face became red (with anger) and he said: O
Zubair. Irrigate (your land) and then withhold the water
till it fills the land up to the walls and then let if
flow to your neighbor. So the Prophet enabled Az-Zubair
to take his full right after the Ansari provoked his
anger.
The Prophet had previously given an
order that was in favour of both of them. Az-Zubair said:
'I don't think but this verse was revealed in this
connection: But no, by your Lord, they can have no faith,
until they make you judge in all disputes between them'
(4: 65). [Bukhari,
VI, No. 109.]
Kinds of
Reasons
There are three kinds of 'reasons'
which are connected with revelation of particular passages
from the Qur'an:
- Revelation in response to an event or a general
situation.
- Revelation in response to a particular question
that has been asked by someone.
- Revelation for other reasons, known or not known
to us.
Response to an
Event
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: The Prophet went
out towards Al-Batha' and ascended the mountain and
shouted: 'O Sabahah', so the Quraish people gathered
around him. He said: 'Do you see? If I tell you that an
enemy is going to attack you in the morning or in the
evening, will you believe me?' They replied: 'Yes'. He
said- 'Then I am a plain Warner to you of a coming severe
punishment'. Abu Lahab said: 'Is it for this reason that
you have gathered us? May you perish!' Then Allah revealed
'Perish
the hands of Abu Lahab'
(Sura
111: verse 1). [Bukhari,
VI, No. 496.]
The Sura concerning Abu Lahab was
revealed in response to this event, when Abu Lahab said:
'May you perish!'
Response to a
Particular Situation
Sura 2:158 concerning Safa and Marwa
was revealed in response to a particular situation in
Makka during the time of the Prophet.
Narrated 'Urwa: I asked 'A'isha
(regarding the Sa'i between As-Safa and Al-Marwa). She
said: 'Out of reverence to the idol Manat which was
placed in Al-Mushallal those who used to assume Ihram in
its name, used not to perform Sa'i between As-Safa and
Al-Marwa (because there were two other idols between
these two hills). So Allah revealed: Verily
As.-Safa and Al-Marwa are among the symbols of Allah.'
Thereupon Allah's apostle and the Muslims used to
perform Sa'i (between them). Sufyan said: The (idol)
Manat was at Al-Mushallal in Qudaid. 'A'isha added: 'The
verse was revealed in connection with the Ansar. They
and (the tribe of) Ghassan used to assume Ihram in the
name of Manat before they embraced Islam'. 'A'isha added
'There were men from the Ansar who used to assume Ihram
in the name of Manat which was an idol between Makka and
Medina. They said, O Allah's Apostle! We used not to
perform the Tawaf (sa'i) between As-Safa and Al-Marwa
out of reverence to Manat. '
[Bukhari,
VI, No. 384; also Nos. 22. 23.]
In response to this situation 2: 158
was revealed.
Question to the
Prophet
On many occasions the Muslims addressed
questions to the Prophet concerning Islamic beliefs and
the Islamic way of life. An example of the many occasions
when a revelation was revealed in response to such a
question posed to the Prophet is Sura 4:11
Narrated Jabir: The Prophet and Abu
Bakr came on foot to pay me a visit (during my illness)
at Banu Salama's (dwellings). The Prophet found me
unconscious, so he asked for water and performed the
ablution from it and sprinkled some water over me. I
came to my senses and said O Allah's apostle! What do
you order me to do as regards my wealth? So there was
revealed 'Allah
commands you as regards your children's (inheritance)'
(4:
11). [Bukhari,
VI, No. 101.]
The verse in question is concerned with
inheritance and explains the rules of inheritance for
children as follows:
God (thus) directs you as regards
your children's (inheritance): 'To the male a portion
equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or
more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance. If
only one, her share is half ...'
(4:11).
Question by the
Prophet
On other occasions, the Prophet himself
asked questions. Sura 19: 64 was revealed in response to
such a question by the Prophet Muhammad:
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: The Prophet said
to the Angel Gabriel, What prevents you from visiting us
more often than you visit us now? So there was revealed:
'And
we (angels) descend not but by the command of your Lord.
To Him belongs what is before us and what is behind us
...' (19:
64).' [Bukhari,
VI, No. 255.]
Response to a
General Question
There are numerous occasions when
revelation was sent down providing guidance concerning
general questions that had arisen in the Muslim community.
Thabit narrated from Anas: Among the
Jews, when a woman menstruated, they did not dine with
her, nor did they live with them in their houses; so the
Companions of the apostle (may peace be upon him) asked
the apostle (may peace be upon him) and Allah the
Exalted revealed: 'And
they ask you about menstruation: say it is a pollution,
so keep away from women during menstruation' to the end
(Qur'an
2: 222). The
messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: Do
everything except intercourse ...
[Muslim,
I. No. 592.]
This report is also a good example of
how the Prophet himself explained the meanings of the
revelation when such questions arose.
Particular
Persons
Often a general rule which became part
of the Qur'anic revelation, was first revealed in response
to the circumstances or needs of a particular person, e.g.
Sura 2:196:
'... And if any of you is ill, or has
an ailment in his scalp (necessitating shaving) he
should in compensation either fast or feed the poor or
offer sacrifice ...'
Ka'b
bin 'Ujra said this verse - and if one of you is ill or
has an ailment in his scalp, - was revealed concerning
me. I had lice on my head and I mentioned this to the
Prophet and he said: Shave (your head) and compensate by
fasting three days or a sacrifice or feed six poor, for
each poor one Sa'. [Muslim,
II, Nos. 2735, 2738, 2739; Wahidi, op.cit., p.31. One sa'
is a cubic measure of approx. 2.6 kg.]
This is again an example of the Prophet
himself explaining the revelation in detail. At other
times such revelation could not be applied but to the
respective person. The best example of such a revelation
is Sura Lahab (111) already referred to above. Other
examples are references to the Prophet Muhammad in the
Qur’an, such as e.g. Sura 75: 16:
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas (as regards
Allah's statement) 'Move
not your tongue concerning (the Qur'an) to make haste
therewith' (75:16).
When
the Angel Gabriel revealed the divine inspiration to
Allah's Apostle he moved his tongue and lips, and that
stage used to be very hard for him, and that movement
indicated that revelation was taking place. So Allah
revealed in Sura al-qiyama which begins:
'I
do swear by the Day of Resurrection ...' The
Verses: 'Move
not your tongue concerning (the Qur'an) to make haste
therewith. It is for us to collect it (Qur'an) in your
mind and give you the ability to recite it by heart'
(75:16-17).
[Bukhari.
VI. No. 451.]
Several Asbab
and One Revelation
From the reports of the sahaba it
appears that particular passages of the Qur'an were
revealed in response to more than one event, situation or
question, or that the application of a particular passage
of the Qur'an was for more than one particular occasion,
as pointed out above.
Examples:
Sura al-ikhlas (112) firstly responds
to the mushrikun in Makka before the hijra, and secondly
to the ahl al-kitab encountered in Madina after the hijra.
[Itqan,
I, p.35; Wahidi, op.cit., pp.262-3.]
Another example is Sura 9: 113:
This aya was revealed firstly in
connection with the death of the Prophet's uncle Abu
Talib, where Muhammad said 'I will keep on asking (Allah
for) forgiveness for you unless I am forbidden to do
so'. Then there was revealed:
it
is not fitting for the Prophet and those who believe
that they should pray for forgiveness for pagans, even
though they be of kin, after it has become clear to them
that they are the companions of the Fire.
[Bukhari,
VI, No. 197.]
The other occasion reported is when the
Companions and in particular 'Umar b. al-Khattab found the
Prophet shedding tears when he visited the graveyard. The
Prophet explained that he had visited his mother's grave
and that he had asked his Lord's permission to visit it
which had been granted to him and that he had also asked
his Lord's permission to pray for her forgiveness which
had not been granted to him and the above aya had been
revealed. [Wahidi,
op. cit., p. 152.]
Several
Revelations and One Sabab
A well-known example for several
revelations, which are connected with one particular
circumstance, are three verses which according to reliable
reports, came down in response to the question of Umm
Salama, whether or why only the men had been referred to
in the Qur'an, as being rewarded. According to Al-Hakim
and Tirmidhi the verses 3:195, 4: 32 and 33:35
were revealed in response to this question:
'And their Lord has accepted of them
and answered them: Never will I suffer to be lost the
work of any of you be he male or female: Ye are members,
one of another: those who have left their homes, or have
been driven out therefrom, or suffered harm in My cause,
or fought or been slain - verily I will blot out from
them their iniquities and admit them into gardens with
rivers flowing beneath; a reward from the presence of
God and from His presence is the best of rewards'
(3:
195).
'And in no wise covet those things in
which God has bestowed His gifts more freely on some of
you than on others; to men is allotted what they earn
and to women what they earn: but ask God of His bounty
for God has full knowledge of all things' (4:
32).
'For Muslim men and women - for
believing men and women - for devout men and women, for
true men and women, for men and women who are patient
and constant, for men and women who humble themselves,
for men and women who give in charity, for men and women
who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity,
and for men and women who engage much in God's praise -
for them has God prepared forgiveness and great reward'
(33:35).
[Salih,
op cit., p. 148]
Several Views
on Sabab al-Nuzul
It also occurs that the Companions of
the Prophet when mentioning a revelation, differed in
their views about its sabab al-nuzul. This is due to the
fact that as already shown above there have been various
asbab for one particular revelation, and each of the
persons reporting the circumstances had been present only
on one of the various occasions.
Otherwise several views about the same
revelation have to be judged on their merits according to
the rules of 'ulum al-,hadith, and one of them will be
found to be stronger than the others.
There are two reports concerning the
revelation of Sura 17: 85:
According to Ibn 'Abbas, as reported
in Tirmidhi, the Quraish asked the Jews to give them
something they could ask the Prophet about and they were
advised to ask about the Spirit (al-ruh). Then the aya
17:85 was revealed.
From Ibn Mas'ud, as reported in
Bukhari, it is related that he said: While I was in the
company of the Prophet on a farm, and he was reclining
on a palm leaf stalk, some Jews passed by. Some of them
said to the others: Ask him about the Spirit. Some of
them said: What urges you to ask him about it. Others
said: (Don't) lest he should give you a reply which you
dislike, but they said, Ask him. So they asked him about
the Spirit. The Prophet kept quiet and did not give them
any answer. I knew that he was being divinely inspired
so I stayed at my place. When the divine inspiration had
been revealed, the Prophet said 'They
ask you (O Muhammad) concerning the Spirit. Say:
"the Spirit", its knowledge is with my Lord
and from the knowledge it is only a little that has been
given to you (mankind)'
(17:
85).
The second report, although the first
one has been declared sahih by Tirmidhi, is considered to
be stronger because it comes from Ibn Mas'ud, who says
that he was present on the occasion of the revelation,
while the report from Ibn 'Abbas in Tirmidhi does not
contain this information. [See
Salih, op.cit., pp. 145-6; Bukhari, VI, No. 245.]
Specific or
General?
Another question leads directly to the
field of tafsir, but is still connected with asbab al-nuzul.
When one knows about the sabab al-nuzul, it is still to be
decided whether the revelation has a specific implication
for the particular occasion it was connected with, or
whether it is of general implication and needs to be
applied by all Muslims at all times.
'As to the thief, male or female, cut
off his or her hands: a punishment by way of example,
from God, for their crime: and God is exalted in power'
(5:
41).
This verse although it was revealed
concerning a specific person who had stolen a piece of
armor and had been punished accordingly, is of general
application. [See
Wahidi, op.cit., p.111; also Tafsir Ibn al-Jauzi, Beirut,
1964, Vol.II, p.348.]
What is not
Asbab al-Nuzul
In some cases scholars have provided us
with the background of certain events that have been
narrated in the Qur'an. Obviously, however, such
information does not belong to the field of asbab al-nuzul.
Although it may help to understand the message of the
revelation, it is not related in a direct and reliable
way, showing immediate reason for or the occasion of the
revelation.
'Seest thou not how thy Lord dealt
with the companions of the elephant?'
(105:1).
The following passage from a book of
tafsir, although it contains information about the
background of the event narrated in the sura, does not
belong to the field of asbab al-nuzul:
(The companions of the elephant) had
come from the Yemen and wanted to destroy the Ka'ba
(they were) from Abyssinia and their leader was Abraha
al-Ashram, the Abyssinian.
[Tujibi,
mukhtasar min tafsir al-Tabari, Cairo, 1970, II, p.529.]
Summary
The branch of 'ulum al-Qur’an
concerned with the asbab al-nuzul is one of the most
important areas of knowledge for the proper understanding
and explanation of the Qur'anic revelation. The message of
the Qur'an is guidance for all times. However its ayat
were revealed at particular points of time in history and
in particular circumstances.
One of the most crucial steps in
meaningful interpretation is to distinguish between that
part which is attached solely to the historical event and
that part, which, although attached to the historical
event, also has wider implications. The knowledge of asbab
al-nuzul helps to distinguish between these two by:
- Clarifying the events and circumstances, which are
connected with the revelation of certain ayat.
- Illustrating the application of such ayat by
referring to situations, when the Companions of the
Prophet found them proper and applicable.
AL-NASIKH WA
AL-MANSUKH
The revelations from Allah as found in
the Qur'an touch on a variety of subjects, among them
beliefs, history, tales of the prophets, day of judgement,
Paradise and Hell, and many others. Particularly important
are the ahkam (legal rulings), because they prescribe the
manner of legal relationships between people, as Allah
wishes them to be observed.
While the basic message of Islam
remains always the same, the legal rulings have varied
throughout the ages, and many prophets before Muhammad
brought particular codes of law (shari'a) for their
respective communities.
The Arabic words 'nasikh' and 'mansukh'
are both derived from the same root word 'nasakha' which
carries meanings such as 'to abolish, to replace, to
withdraw, to abrogate'.
The word nasikh (an active participle)
means 'the abrogating', while mansukh (passive) means 'the
abrogated'. In technical language these terms refer to
certain parts of the Qur'anic revelation, which have been
'abrogated' by others. Naturally the abrogated passage is
the one called 'mansukh' while the abrogating one is
called 'nasikh'.
The Qur'an on
Naskh
The principle of naskh (abrogation) is
referred to in the Qur'an itself and is not a later
historical development:
'None of Our revelations do We abrogate
or cause it to be forgotten, but We substitute something
better or similar: knowest thou that God has power over
all things?' (2: 106). [Some
however say that this refers to the revelations before the
Qur’an, which have now been substituted by the Qur’an
itself. See Mawdudi. The Meaning of the Qur’an, Lahore,
1967, Vol. I, p.102. note 109.]
How it came
about
When the message of Islam was presented
to the Arabs as something new, and different from their
way of life, it was introduced in stages. The Qur'an
brought important changes gradually, to allow the people
to adjust to the new prescriptions.
Example:
There are three verses in the Qur'an concerning the
drinking of wine. Wine drinking was very widespread in
pre-Islamic times and, although a social evil, highly
esteemed. The three verses which finally led to the
prohibition of intoxicating substances were revealed in
stages (4:
43, 2: 219; 5: 93-4).
Why it is
important
Knowledge of al-nasikh wa al-mansukh is
important because it concerns the correct and exact
application of the laws of Allah. It is specifically
concerned with legal revelations:
- It is one of the important pre-conditions for
explanation (tafsir) of the Qur'an.
- It is one of the important pre-conditions for
understanding and application of the Islamic law (hukm,
shari'a).
- It sheds light on the historical development of
the Islamic legal code.
- It helps to understand the immediate meaning of
the ayat concerned.
Tafsir (explanation of the Qur'an) or
legal ruling is not acceptable from a person who does not
have such knowledge.
How do we know
it?
As in the field of asbab al-nuzul, the
information about al-nasikh wa al-mansukh cannot be
accepted upon mere personal opinion, guesswork or hearsay,
but must be based on reliable reports, according to the
ulum al-hadith, and should go back to the Prophet and his
Companions.
The report must also clearly state
which part of the revelation is nasikh and which is
mansukh.
Some scholars say that there are three
ways of knowing about al-nasikh wa al-mansukh:
- Report from the Prophet or Companions.
- Ijma' (consensus of the umma upon what is nasikh
and what mansukh).
- Knowledge about which part of the Qur'an preceded
another part in the history of revelation. [Qattan,
op.cit., p. 199]
Example:
Narrated Mujahid (regarding
the verse):
Those of you who die and leave wives
behind, they (their wives) shall await (as regards their
marriage) for four months and ten days (2:
234).
The widow, according to this verse, was
to spend this period of waiting with her husband's family,
so Allah revealed: Those of you who die and leave wives
(i.e. widows) should bequeath for their wives, a year's
maintenance and residence without turning them out, but if
they leave (their residence) there is no blame on you for
what they do with themselves, provided it is honourable
(i.e. Lawful marriage) (2: 240).
So Allah entitled the widow to be
bequeathed extra maintenance for seven months and 20
nights and that is the completion of one year. If she
wished, she could stay (in her husband's home) according
to the will, and she could leave it if she wished, as
Allah says: Without turning them out, but if they leave
(the residence) there is no blame on you.
So the idea (i.e. four months and ten
days) is obligatory for her.
'Ata' said: Ibn 'Abbas said: This verse
i.e. the statement of Allah ... without turning one out
... cancelled the obligation of staying for the waiting
period in her late husband's house, and she can complete
this period wherever she likes.
'Ata' said: If she wished, she could
complete her 'idda by staying in her late husband's
residence according to the will or leave it according to
Allah's statement:
'There is no blame on you for what they
do with themselves.'
'Ata' added: Later the regulations of
inheritance came and abrogated the order of the dwelling
of the widow (in her dead husband's house) so she could
complete the 'idda wherever she likes. And it was no
longer necessary to provide her with a residence.
Ibn Abbas said: This verse abrogated
her (i.e. the widow's) dwelling in her dead husband's
house and she could complete the 'idda (i.e. four months
and ten days) (wherever she liked, as Allah's statement
says: ...'without turning them out ...' [Bukhari,
VI, No. 54.]
This report explains clearly which part
of the revelation is nasikh and which is mansukh. Mujahid
was one of the well-known tab'iun and Ibn 'Abbas was a
Companion of the Prophet.
What is
Abrogated?
According to some scholars the Qur'an
abrogates only the Qur'an. They base their view on suras
2: 106 and 16: 101. According to them the Qur'an does not
abrogate the sunna nor does the sunna abrogate the Qur'an.
This is, in particular, the view held by Shafi'i. [For
details see Kitab al-risala, Cairo, n.d., pp.30-73;
English translation by M. Khadduri, op.cit., pp. 12345;
for a brief summary of Ash-Shafi'i's views see also Seeman,
K., Ash-Shafi'is Risala, Lahore, 1961, pp.53-85.]
Others are of the opinion that the
Qur'an may abrogate the Qur'an as well as the sunna. They
base their view on Sura 53: 34.
There is also the view that there are
four classes of naskh:
- Qur'an abrogates Qur'an.
- Qur'an abrogates sunna.
- Sunna abrogates Qur'an.
- Sunna abrogates sunna.
[Qattan, op.cit, pp. 201-2.]
In this discussion, we shall only
consider the abrogation in the Qur'an, and leave aside the
abrogation in the sunna.
Three Kinds of Naskh in the Qur'an [Ibn
Salama, al-nasikh wa al-mansukh, Cairo, 1966, p.5.]
The scholars have divided abrogation
into three kinds:
- Abrogation of the recited (verse) together with
the legal ruling.
- Abrogation of the legal ruling without the recited
(verse).
- Abrogation of the recited (verse) without the
legal ruling.
For abrogation of the recited (verse)
together with its legal ruling:
'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her)
reported that it had been revealed in the Holy Qur'an
that ten clear sucklings make the marriage unlawful,
then it was abrogated (and substituted) by five
sucklings and Allah's apostle (may peace be upon him)
died and it was before that time (found) in the Holy
Qur'an (and recited by the Muslims). [34
Muslim, II, No. 3421.]
For abrogation of a legal ruling
without the recited (verse):
'O Prophet! We have made lawful to
thee thy wives to whom thou has paid their dowers; and
those whom thy right hand possesses out of the prisoners
of war whom God has assigned to thee; and daughters of
thy paternal uncles and aunts and daughters of thy
maternal uncles and aunts, who migrated (from Makka)
with thee; and any believing woman who dedicates her
soul to the Prophet if the Prophet wishes to wed her; -
this only for thee and not for the believers (at
large);We know what we have appointed for them as to
their wives and the captives whom their right hands
possess; - in order that there should be no difficulty
for thee and God is oft-forgiving, most merciful'
(33:
50).
'It is not lawful for thee (to marry
more) women after this, nor to change them for (other)
wives, even though their beauty attract thee, except any
thy right hand should possess (as handmaidens); and God
doth watch over all things'
(33:
52).
This is one of the few very clear
examples of naskh, though only concerning the Prophet
specifically, since for Muslims in general the number of
wives has been restricted to four. (Sura 4:3).
For abrogation of the recited (verse)
without the legal ruling:
'Abdullah bin 'Abbas reported that 'Umar
bin Khattab sat on the pulpit of Allah's messenger (may
peace be upon him) and said: Verily Allah sent Muhammad
(may peace be upon him) with truth and he sent down the
book upon him, and the verse of stoning was included in
what was sent down to him. We recited it, retained it in
our memory and understood it. Allah's messenger (may
peace be upon him) awarded the punishment of stoning to
death (to the married adulterer and adulteress) and
after him, we also awarded the punishment of stoning. I
am afraid that with the lapse of time, the people (may
forget it) and may say: We do not find the punishment of
stoning in the book of Allah, and thus go astray by
abandoning this duty prescribed by Allah. Stoning is a
duty laid down in Allah's book for married men and women
who commit adultery when proof is established, or if
there is pregnancy or a confession.
[Muslim,
III, No. 4194; Bukhari, VIII, No. 816.]
The punishment of stoning for adultery
by married people has been retained in the sunna, while it
is not included in the Qur'an .
The Abrogated
Verses
There are, according to Ibn Salama, [Op
cit., see pp.6-8 for the names of these suras.]
a well-known author on the subject:
- 43 suras with neither nasikh or mansukh.
- 6 suras with nasikh but no mansukh.
- 40 suras with mansukh but no nasikh.
- 25 suras with both nasikh and mansukh.
According to Suyuti's Itqan there are
21 instances in the Qur'an, where a revelation has been
abrogated by another.
He also indicates that there is a
difference of opinion about some of these: e.g. 4: 8, 24:
58, etc. [Itqan,
II, pp.20-3; Kamal, op.cit., pp.101-9 also gives Suyuti's
complete list.]
Some scholars have attempted to reduce
the number of abrogations in the Qur'an even further, by
explaining the relationships between the verses in some
special ways, e.g. by pointing out that no legal
abrogation is involved, or that for certain reasons the
naskh is not genuine
Shah Waliullah (d. 1759) the great
Muslim scholar from India only retained the following 5
out of Suyuti's 21 cases as genuine:
Mansukh 2: 180 nasikh 4: 11, 12
Mansukh 2:240 nasikh 2: 234.
Mansukh 8:65 nasikh 8: 62.
Mansukh 30:50 nasikh 33: 52.
Mansukh 58: 12 nasikh 58: 13.
A case listed by Suyuti, which has no
direct legal implication is the following:
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: When the verse: 'If
there are 20 amongst you, patient and persevering, they
will overcome two hundred',
was
revealed, it became hard on the Muslims, when it became
compulsory that one Muslim ought not to flee before 10
(non-Muslims) so
Allah lightened the order by revealing: 'but
now Allah has lightened your (task) for He knows that
there is weakness in you. But (even so) if there are 100
amongst you who are patient and persevering, they will
overcome 200 (non-Muslims)'
(8:
66). So
when Allah reduced the number of enemies that Muslims
should withstand, their patience and perseverence
against the enemy decreased as much as their task was
lightened for them. [Bukhari,
VI, No.176.]
Still others hold that there are no
genuine (sahih) reports available on this issue, going
back to the Prophet, while those going back to the
Companions contradict each other. [Ali,
M.M.: The Religion of Islam, Lahore, 1936, p.32.
It may be pointed out that Ali's treatment of the subject
is not very thorough. Of the three examp1es he cites in
support of his opinion ('in most cases, where a report is
traceable to one Companion who held a certain verse to
have been abrogated, there is another report traceable to
another Companion, through the fact that the verse was not
abrogated' - p.
33)
two are definitely not in his favour, while the third can
be easily explained. His first case concerns Sura
2:180
(inheritance). It has certainly been superseded by other
verses, e.g. 4:7-9 and that is probably all that is meant,
when saying it is mansukh Ali's second case, '2:184,
is considered by Ibn 'Umar as having been abrogated while
Ibn 'Abbas says it was not' . See below, where I have
quoted this very hadith from Ibn 'Abbas (Bukhari, VI,
No.32) where Ibn 'Abbas himself explains why he does not
hold it as abrogated. The third case is, like the first
one, definitely not in support of Ali: '2:
240
was abrogated according to Ibn Zubair, while Mujahid says
it was not'. This is wrong, see Sahih
Bukhari, VI, Nos. 53 and 54,
where both Ibn Zubair and Mujahid hold the verse to be
abrogated. Furthermore both Ibn Zubair and Mujahid are
tabi'un, and not Companions (sahaba).]
Therefore to them the issue of nasikh
wa al mansukh is perhaps not of great importance. However,
it is clear from the Qur'an itself, (e.g. in the case of
inheritance, 2: 180; 4: 7-9, etc.) that abrogation
occurred occasionally. Hence it is wrong to completely
ignore the subject.
Abrogation and
Specification
There is of course a difference between
abrogation and specification. By the latter is meant that
one revelation explains in more detail or according to
specific circumstances how another revelation should be
understood.
Example: Sura
2:183 says 'O
you who believe, fasting is prescribed to you ...'
Narrated 'Ata' that he heard Ibn 'Abbas
reciting the Divine verse 'for
those who can do it is a ransom, the feeding of one that
is indigent' (2:184).
Ibn 'Abbas said 'This
verse is not abrogated but it is meant for old men and old
women who have no strength to fast, so they should feed
one poor person for each day of fasting (instead of
fasting). [Bukhari,
VI, No. 32.]
It is quite clear that the second verse
(2:184)
does not abrogate the rule of fasting from the first verse
(2:183)
but explains that in a specific case, that of feeble old
people, there is a way of making up for the loss of fast.
In the same way the verses concerning
intoxicating drinks can be understood as specifications
rather than abrogations (see
4:43;2:219;5:93-4).
Summary
The Qur'an, in 2:106, refers to the
concept of naskh. However, there is a difference of
opinion about the extent to which al-nasikh wa-al mansukh
does in fact occur in the text of the Qur'an. The
information concerning al-nasikh wa-al mansukh must be
treated with great caution as, for all reports concerning
the text of the Qur'an, two independent witnesses are
required. Many of the examples which the scholars have
drawn upon to illustrate this question (and I have quoted
them for the same purpose) are based on one witness only.
'A'isha alone reported that 10 or 5 sucklings had been
part of the Qur'anic recitation, and only 'Umar reported
that the 'verse of stoning' had been included in the
Qur'anic text. These legal rulings are not included in the
Qur'an precisely because they were not considered
reliable, being based on one witness only. Similarly,
other examples about naskh, based on the words of Ibn 'Abbas
or Mujahid alone, are to be judged by the same measure.
However, as mentioned there remain a
small number of verses which, as far as can be ascertained
from the internal evidence of the Qur'an, have been
superseded by other verses in the Qur'an.
VARIETY OF
MODES
What is the meaning of al-ahruf al-sab'a?
The word sab'a means seven, and ahruf
is the plural form of harf, which has many meanings, among
them 'edge' border, letter, word', etc. In technical
language it describes the variety of modes of the Qur'an
transmitted to us, also expressed in various forms of
writing the text.
Example:
Read the two versions of Sura 2:9 given
on plates 7 and 8. Disregard the difference in style of
writing. The first example is from a Qur'an from North
Africa, the second from a Qur'an from Jordan. In the North
African version, the word 'yukhadi'una' (they deceive) is
used twice, while in the Jordan version, the word occurs
as 'yakhda'una' in the second instant. Both are correct
and accepted readings, since they have been transmitted to
us. Also there is no objection from the viewpoint of
grammar or correct language and the writing without vowel
signs can carry both readings.
The Language of
the Quraish
In the time of the Prophet Muhammad
when the Qur'an was revealed, the Arab tribes scattered
all over the peninsula, spoke a number of dialects, each
containing peculiar words and idioms.
The language of the Quraish had
developed into a form of 'high Arabic' due to the many
influences it absorbed, being spoken at the main centre of
trade and pilgrimage in Arabia. Hence this language was
obviously the most suitable to carry the messages of
revelation which were to reach all peoples and not be
restricted to a particular tribe.
The Seven Modes
The hadith reports tell us that the
Qur'an was actually revealed in seven modes (al-ahruf al-sab'a).
This has been narrated by more than ten of the Prophet's
Companions, among them Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, Ibn
Mas'ud, Ibn 'Abbas and others.
[Itqan,
I, p. 41.]
The following is the hadith in Bukhari:
'Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas:
Allah's apostle said: Gabriel recited the Qur'an to me
in one way. Then I requested him (to read it in another
way), and continued asking him to recite it in other
ways, and he recited it in several ways till he
ultimately recited it in seven different ways'.
[Bukhari,
VI No. 513.]
On another occasion, 'Umar complained
to the Prophet that Hisham had recited Sura al-furqan in a
way different from what 'Umar had heard from the Prophet,
but the Prophet said: '...
this Qur'an has been revealed to be recited in seven
different ways, so recite of it whichever is easier for
you'. [Bukhari,
VI No. 514.]
Salman is reported to have said that he
read a passage from 5:82 in the presence of the Prophet in
the following two versions, the first of which is now in
the Qur'anic text, while the second constitutes a variant
reading according to 'Ubay b. Ka'b: [Ibn
Abi Dawud., p. 129.]
- dhalika bi-anna minhum qissisina wa ruhbana.
- dhalika bi-anna minhum siddiqina wa ruhbana.
[Ibn
Abi Dawud., p. 103.]
Muslim scholars have put forward a
number of explanations and benefits for the Muslim umma
deriving from the revelation of the Qur'anic message in
several modes. Among these the following are most
important:
- To make the reading, pronunciation and
memorization more easy, as many people were
illiterate in the Prophet's time.
- To unite the new Muslim community on the basis of
one common language, the Arabic of the Quraish, with
minor variations accepted, according to spoken
language.
- To show something of the unique nature of the
Qur'an, in the realm of language.
- To show something of the unique nature of the
Qur'an, in the realm of meaning and legal rulings.
- To explain a legal ruling in more detail.
Scholars Differ
There is a difference of opinion among
classical Muslim scholars on the subject of the 'seven
modes', to the extent that one of them was able to say:
'the degree of difference of opinion (ikhtilaf) among the
scholars is to the extent of 35 sayings'. [Itqan,
I, p.45.]
Some of these different opinions are
that the 'seven modes' are:
- Different languages (dialects) current among the
Arabs at the time of revelation, such as e.g. Quraish,
Hudhail, Tamim, etc., who had different ways of
pronunciations which could even affect the spelling,
e.g.
- al-tabuh and al-tabut. (2: 248) [See Kamal, op.
cit., p.46.]
- or: hiyaka for iyaka (1:5).
- or: atta for hatta (12: 35).
- It may also be the usage of words from the different
languages in the Qur'an (this is considered one of the
most sound views).
- Usage of synonyms in the Qur'an, i.e. that a variety
of expressions describe one and the same concept. A
well-known example is Sura 101: 5, which reads as
'Ka-l-'ihni-l-manfush', but in another version 'Ka-s-sufi-l-manfush'
both meaning 'like carded wool'. The word arshidna was
read in place of ihdina (Sura 1: 6), etc. [Both
examples from Ibn Mas'ud. This view is also very close
to the Idea of various dialects. and many scholars
tend to accept such usage of synonyms, as meaning the
seven modes'.]
- Different aspects of the revelation, such as e.g.
order, prohibitions, promise, narrations, etc.
- Seven differences, such as possible ways of reading
words and structures in the Qur'an, e.g. the word
'trusts' in 23: 8 which can be read both 'trust' (sg.)
or 'trusts' (pl.) according to the plain text without
vowels: li-amanatihim or li-amanatihim .
- Slightly different wordings of a particular passage,
such as e.g. in 9: 100: 'Gardens under which rivers
flow' which some read as 'Gardens from under which
rivers flow', adding the word 'from' (min) to the
text.
- Different ways of pronunciation as they have been
explained in great detail by the scholars of qira'a
(recitation) such as e.g. imala, idgham, etc. [This
view has also been favoured by many, because it does
not cause much controversy.]
However, even non-Muslim orientalists
concede that 'no major differences of doctrines can be
constructed on the basis of the parallel readings based on
the 'Uthmanic consonantal outline, yet ascribed to mushafs
other than his. All the rival readings unquestionably
represent one and the same text. They are substantially
agreed in what they transmit ... [Burton,
J,: The Collection of the Qur’an, Cambridge. 1977, p.
171.]
Summary
From these different opinions, of which
only some have been listed above, by way of illustration,
a generally-accepted conclusion is that the 'seven modes'
are at the basis of several distinct ways of reciting the
Qur’an, reflecting the different usage at the time of
revelation, comprising variations in pronunciation and
even minor differences in wording. The 'seven 'ahruf are
however, not identical with the well-known 'seven
readings'. These came about in a later age. Although much
of what the 'seven readings' contain is also found in the
seven ahruf, there are some differences, which will be
explained when discussing the seven readings.
Only a few examples for 'ahruf have
been transmitted to us. They are of importance for Tafsir,
rather than qira'a.
Seven Modes in
the Qur'an
While some scholars [e.g.
Tabari, Jami' al-bayan 'an ta'wil ayat al-Qur’an, Cairo,
1968. See introduction to this tafsir. Zarkashi, Vol. 1,
p.213 says most scholars are of the first view, and that
the last double-reading of the Qur'an by Muhammad in the
presence of the Angel Gabriel served, among others, the
purpose of eliminating the other six modes.]
hold that the written
Qur'an now includes only one of the 'seven modes', and the
others are transmitted orally to us, there is some
evidence also for the view that the text of the Qur'an, as
we have it in front of us, may include all these 'seven
modes' because:
- No one would change the Qur'an.
- The present text was written upon the basis of the
sahaba testimonies, both orally and written, going
back directly to the Prophet.
- The Qur'an is protected by Allah.
THE VARIOUS
READINGS
Al-qira'a (pl. qiraa'at) is derived
from the word qara'a, 'reading, reciting'; from which also
the word Qur'an is derived. It is a verbal noun, meaning
recitation. In technical language it describes the oral
recitation of the Qur'an as well as the punctuation of the
written text, which corresponds to the oral recitation.
Examples:
Mawdudi [Introduction
to the Study of the Qur’an, Delhi, 1971, p.21.]
has very convincingly explained the proper understanding
of some accepted difference in reading. He wrote that in al-fatiha
(1: 3): the readings
"maliki"
and " mâliki
" both describe one of the attributes of Allah, and
there is absolutely no contradiction between 'sovereign'
and 'master'
of the day of judgement, but 'these
two readings make the meaning of the verse all the more
clear'.
Similarly 5:8
arjulakum
[Reading of Nafi, Hafs 'an Asim, Kisa'i.]
and arjulikum
[Reading
of Ibn Kathir, Abu Amr, Abu Bakra 'an 'Asim, Hamza.]
carry two meanings: "Wash"
or "Wipe"
your feet
Both are indeed correct, for under
normal circumstances a man will wash his feet, while some
other person e.g. a traveler may wipe them. Here the text
of the Qur'an carries both meanings at the same time. This
is indeed a unique feature of the revelation from Allah.
Readers among
the Sababa
Reading and reciting of the Qur'an has
been done since revelation began, and the Prophet was the
first to recite. This has already been discussed in the
section on transmission of the text. After his death, the
recitation continued through his Companions. Among the
famous readers from whom many of the tabi'un learned, were
Ubay bin Ka'b, 'Ali, Zaid bin Tbabit, Ibn Mas'ud, Abu Musa
al-Ash'ari and many others.
Later
Development
Later on, with Muslims settling in many
parts of the world, the Qur'an was recited in a variety of
ways, some of which were not in accordance with the
accepted text and the transmitted readings from the
Prophet and the Companions. This necessitated a thorough
screening and distinction between what is sahih (sound)
and what is shadh (exceptional).
The Seven
Readings
The 'seven readings' were standardised
in the second/eighth century. Ibn Mujahid, a ninth-century
Muslim scholar, wrote a book entitled The Seven Readings,
in which he selected seven of the prevailing modes of
recitation as the best transmitted and most reliable.
Others were subsequently disfavoured and even opposed,
among them the readings of Ibn Mas'ud and 'Ubay bin Ka'b.
However, this is not to say that one must restrict oneself
to one of these seven readings, or to all of them. Below
are listed the local origin of the seven readings and the
names of readers [For
their short biographies see Fihrist ,I, p. 63ff.]
and some transmitters (rawis) connected with them:
|
Place
|
Reader
|
Transmitter
|
- Madina
|
Nafi' (169/785)
|
Warsh (197/812)
|
|
|
Ibn Kathir (120/737)
|
|
|
|
Ibn 'Amir (118/736)
|
|
|
|
Abu 'Amr (148/770)
|
|
|
|
'Asim (127/744)
|
Hafs (180/796)
|
|
|
Hamza (156/772)
|
|
|
|
Al-Kisa'i (189/804)
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Duri (246/860)
|
|
|
|
Readings No. 1 and 5 are of particular
importance: the reading transmitted by Warsh is widespread
in Africa, except Egypt, where, as now in almost all other
parts of the Muslim world, the reading transmitted by Hafs
is observed.
Other Views
Later on other views emerged, making
ten or fourteen well-known readings. In addition to the
seven above, the following make up the ten and the
fourteen readers:
|
Place
|
Reader
|
Transmitter
|
- Madina
|
Abu Ja'far (130/747)
|
|
- Basra
|
Ya'qub (205/820)
|
|
- Kufa
|
Khalaf (229/843)
|
|
- Basra
|
Hasan al Basri (110/728)
|
|
- Makka
|
Ibn Muhaisin (123/740)
|
|
- Basra
|
Yahya al-Yazidi (202/817)
|
|
- Kufa
|
al-A'mash (148/765)
|
|
|
|
|
The readings are also divided as
follows: [Suyuti,
Itqan, I, p 77]
- The mutawatir (transmitted by many; they include the
seven well-known readings).
- The ahad (transmitted by one; they number three,
going back to the sahaba and together with the seven
make up the ten).
- The shadh (exceptional; they go back to the tabi'un
only).
Muslim scholars have laid down three
criteria for the acceptance of any qira'a and three
criteria for preferring some over others. The best
transmission was of course mutawatir. The three criteria
for acceptance of other readings are:
- Correctness according to Arabic grammar.
- Agreement with the written text of 'Uthman.
- Traced back reliably to the Prophet.
The three criteria for preference are:
- Correctness according to Arabic grammar.
- Agreement with the written text of 'Uthman.
- Reported/preferred by many (majority).
Summary
The best summary on this topic is
perhaps contained in the words of the scholar Abu-l-Khair
bin al-Jazari (d.833/1429), who wrote:
'Every reading in accordance with
Arabic (grammar) even if (only) in some way, and in
accordance with one of the masahif of 'Uthman, even if
(only) probable, and with sound chain of transmission, is
a correct (sahih) reading, which must not be rejected, and
may not be denied, but it belongs to the seven modes (ahruf)
according to which the Qur'an was revealed, and the people
are obliged to accept it, no matter whether it is from the
seven Imams, or the ten or from other accepted Imams, but
when one of these three conditions is not fulfilled, it
must be rejected as weak (daif) or exceptional (shadh) or
void (batil), no matter whether it is from the seven or
from one who is older than them.' [Suyuti,
Itqan, I, p.75 ]
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